Main points:
- An 'effective communication' component is built into each week, comprising online notes and quiz activities that deal mainly with sentence-level grammar.
- The grammatical elements are chosen to be particularly relevant to the week’s topics. For example, verb tenses are covered during the week in which the content topic is ‘language change’. However, the elements are broadly common to all subject areas, making the notes and activities easily adaptable to other courses.
- Extracts from the weekly reading (or texts on similar topics) are used to provide the examples and quiz items. In this way, the grammatical focus is always done in context, and the topic is also covered in more, rather than less, depth.
- All quiz activities are marked automatically, meaning that there is no burden placed on the course lecturers, either in time or in expertise (once the activities have been developed).
- Students are given up to 0.5% towards their coursework for completing each week’s quiz activities. The first time the course was offered, they could retake the quizzes as many times as they liked in the hope that they would use the notes to improve their scores. They could also check their scores as they went along, reviewing their answers to each activity before submitting their final answers. This has since been reduced to two chances to take each quiz, without the option to check their scores throughout.
Week 2 focuses on what it means to be a linguist, so the ‘effective communication’ component begins by covering different word forms - nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs - within a word family. This is introduced with the following definitions from www.dictionary.com since these three words are frequently used incorrectly by our students, so it’s a way of starting to think about word form while hopefully also reinforcing the importance of getting these three particular words right.
The intro concludes with a quiz activity that require students to use the correct form of this word family to complete a simple gap fill task.
There are then some short notes that explain how to know when to use a noun, when to use an adjective, and so on, focusing on form, distribution and function of words, followed by a short multiple-choice task that tests students’ explicit knowledge of word classes. This is vital for linguistics students, since they will be working with words as a unit of analysis, but it also helps raise their awareness of when to use different word forms to suit their context.
Finally, there are some notes and a practice task that focus on using the terms ‘language’ and ‘languages’ correctly, including discussion of the difference between ‘Tongan’ and ‘the Tongan language’, and why never to use simply ‘Tongan language’.
To consolidate the three areas of focus, there is a final correction task, which requires students to identify word form errors within a text, using drag-and-drop quiz items to enable the quiz to be marked automatically. Students are reminded to look out for word form errors as they edit their own writing.
There are then some short notes that explain how to know when to use a noun, when to use an adjective, and so on, focusing on form, distribution and function of words, followed by a short multiple-choice task that tests students’ explicit knowledge of word classes. This is vital for linguistics students, since they will be working with words as a unit of analysis, but it also helps raise their awareness of when to use different word forms to suit their context.
Finally, there are some notes and a practice task that focus on using the terms ‘language’ and ‘languages’ correctly, including discussion of the difference between ‘Tongan’ and ‘the Tongan language’, and why never to use simply ‘Tongan language’.
To consolidate the three areas of focus, there is a final correction task, which requires students to identify word form errors within a text, using drag-and-drop quiz items to enable the quiz to be marked automatically. Students are reminded to look out for word form errors as they edit their own writing.
Week 3 moves to subject-verb agreement, since this is another foundational aspect of grammar on which many of the later ‘effective communication’ activities build. Following a very short introduction about the key principles, the first activity contains five simple sentences to complete with the correct verb form, along the following lines:
A pidgin ________ (is/are) a contact language.
The notes then move on to sentences that include more complex subjects in which the head noun (‘structure’ in the example below) may be some distance from the verb that should agree with it. The next activities require students, firstly, to identify which is the head noun of the subject and, secondly, to complete a gap fill task with complex subjects, such as these:
The structure of verb phrases in Austronesian languages _______ (is/are) usually very different from the structure of English verb phrases.
The final section of the activities moves to complex sentences that contain several clauses (each with its own verb). Example sentences from the week’s reading (Heugh, 2002, on multilingual education) are used to illustrate the way different clauses can be embedded within a single sentence, and the way each finite verb must agree with the head noun of its subject:
[The reluctance towards [implementing the new language in education policy], or tardiness with regard to it, is often ascribed to the belief that [most parents want English only]].
Following these notes, there is a correction activity, which can be completed by dragging and dropping a cross onto each verb that does not agree with the head noun of its subject. The paragraph comes from the same text that they have read during the week.
A pidgin ________ (is/are) a contact language.
The notes then move on to sentences that include more complex subjects in which the head noun (‘structure’ in the example below) may be some distance from the verb that should agree with it. The next activities require students, firstly, to identify which is the head noun of the subject and, secondly, to complete a gap fill task with complex subjects, such as these:
The structure of verb phrases in Austronesian languages _______ (is/are) usually very different from the structure of English verb phrases.
The final section of the activities moves to complex sentences that contain several clauses (each with its own verb). Example sentences from the week’s reading (Heugh, 2002, on multilingual education) are used to illustrate the way different clauses can be embedded within a single sentence, and the way each finite verb must agree with the head noun of its subject:
[The reluctance towards [implementing the new language in education policy], or tardiness with regard to it, is often ascribed to the belief that [most parents want English only]].
Following these notes, there is a correction activity, which can be completed by dragging and dropping a cross onto each verb that does not agree with the head noun of its subject. The paragraph comes from the same text that they have read during the week.
In Week 4, the topic is linguistic diversity, so students are dealing with texts about large numbers of languages. The ‘effective communication’ component therefore covers articles (use of ‘the’, ‘a/an’ or no word), plurals (when making generalisations, after the phrase ‘one of the’, and when dealing with uncountable nouns such as ‘research’), and quantifiers (such as ‘all’, ‘some’, ‘a few’ and ‘few’). As usual, these grammar points are covered in context. For example, one gap-fill task can only be completed correctly with the help of a data table about Micronesian languages from the Ethnologue (which is also used in the week’s ‘exploring ideas’ task). By focusing their attention on whether ‘few’ or ‘many’ languages have more than 5,000 speakers and so on, students learn to use quantifiers with precision, but also learn more about the languages of the region.
Week 5 covers the relationships between languages and different dialects of those languages, and the weekly reading covers some quite challenging points that rely on a close understanding of main and subordinate clauses, so this forms the basis of the week's notes and quizzes. The first task is a drag-and-drop activity that requires students to insert full stops into an unpunctuated paragraph (adapted from Sallabank, 2013, about dialects of Cook Islands Māori) to assess their ability to divide text into meaningful sentences.
Following some notes that revise school-level knowledge about simple, compound and complex sentences (using a paragraph from François et al, 2015, about communalects in Vanuatu), students are asked to identify the nature of errors in a series of sentences, choosing between the following multiple-choice options:
The week’s activities conclude with a paragraph to complete (from Ross, 2003, on speech communities in Papua New Guinea), by choosing the correction option from several verb pairs:
Following some notes that revise school-level knowledge about simple, compound and complex sentences (using a paragraph from François et al, 2015, about communalects in Vanuatu), students are asked to identify the nature of errors in a series of sentences, choosing between the following multiple-choice options:
- There is just a noun phrase without any attempt at a clause.
- There is no subject.
- There is no main verb.
- There are two main clauses without a conjunction to link them.
The week’s activities conclude with a paragraph to complete (from Ross, 2003, on speech communities in Papua New Guinea), by choosing the correction option from several verb pairs:
Week 6 turns to language change, which is a natural topic to use to focus on verb forms. The notes begin by looking at the different types of verbs - lexical verbs (containing content), primary auxiliaries (helping to mark grammatical information such as passive voice), and modal auxiliaries (helping to express how certain, possible or permissible a situation is). Using this information, students are then given five key rules about marking tense in English, which are expressed slightly differently from typical ‘school grammar’:
Tense rule 1: Tense is only marked once within a whole verb group.
e.g. The language sounded familiar. (lexical verb in past tense)
e.g. The language didn’t sound familiar. (primary auxiliary in past tense)
*The language didn’t sounded familiar.
Tense rule 2: If the verb group only contains a lexical verb, then this verb will show the tense.
e.g. The language sounds familiar. (present tense)
e.g. The language sounded familiar. (past tense)
Tense rule 3: If the verb group contains one or more primary auxiliaries, tense will be marked on the first primary auxiliary.
e.g. The language is changing all the time. (present tense)
e.g. The language was changing all the time. (past tense)
e.g. The language has been changing for a long time. (present tense)
e.g. The language had been changing for a long time. (past tense)
Tense rule 4: If the verb group contains a modal auxiliary, there is no tense shown at all.
e.g. The language might sound familiar.
e.g. The language could have been changing for a long time.
Tense rule 5: If a verb group follows the preposition ‘to’, there is no tense shown at all in that verb group. This type of verb group occurs only in a subordinate clause. Tense will still be marked in the main clause.
e.g. I tried to listen to the sound of the language. (The main verb ‘tried’ is in the past tense)
*I tried to listened to the sound of the language.
Understanding of these tense rules is then tested using a multiple-choice activity to identify the nature of sentence errors, followed by a correction activity to rewrite the sentences correctly.
The notes and activities then move to the discussion of progressive (continuous) aspect (e.g. We are investigating …/We were listening …) and perfect aspect (e.g. We have spoken …/We had noticed …). Students learn how to choose the correct primary auxiliary (‘be’ or ‘have’), put it in the correct tense (present or past), and then choose the correct form of the lexical verb (-ing or -en/-ed), using a paragraph about language change as the basis for the final gap fill quiz activity.
Tense rule 1: Tense is only marked once within a whole verb group.
e.g. The language sounded familiar. (lexical verb in past tense)
e.g. The language didn’t sound familiar. (primary auxiliary in past tense)
*The language didn’t sounded familiar.
Tense rule 2: If the verb group only contains a lexical verb, then this verb will show the tense.
e.g. The language sounds familiar. (present tense)
e.g. The language sounded familiar. (past tense)
Tense rule 3: If the verb group contains one or more primary auxiliaries, tense will be marked on the first primary auxiliary.
e.g. The language is changing all the time. (present tense)
e.g. The language was changing all the time. (past tense)
e.g. The language has been changing for a long time. (present tense)
e.g. The language had been changing for a long time. (past tense)
Tense rule 4: If the verb group contains a modal auxiliary, there is no tense shown at all.
e.g. The language might sound familiar.
e.g. The language could have been changing for a long time.
Tense rule 5: If a verb group follows the preposition ‘to’, there is no tense shown at all in that verb group. This type of verb group occurs only in a subordinate clause. Tense will still be marked in the main clause.
e.g. I tried to listen to the sound of the language. (The main verb ‘tried’ is in the past tense)
*I tried to listened to the sound of the language.
Understanding of these tense rules is then tested using a multiple-choice activity to identify the nature of sentence errors, followed by a correction activity to rewrite the sentences correctly.
The notes and activities then move to the discussion of progressive (continuous) aspect (e.g. We are investigating …/We were listening …) and perfect aspect (e.g. We have spoken …/We had noticed …). Students learn how to choose the correct primary auxiliary (‘be’ or ‘have’), put it in the correct tense (present or past), and then choose the correct form of the lexical verb (-ing or -en/-ed), using a paragraph about language change as the basis for the final gap fill quiz activity.
Week 7 focuses on the process known as nominalisation, which is a common feature of academic writing, and particularly high frequency in the week’s reading. Nominalisation refers to the process of turning a whole clause into a noun phrase to express an idea more concisely.
(1) Verb-heavy text:
The number of spelling errors appears to be increasing in the documents that school leavers write. As a result, employers are becoming concerned about the way spelling is being taught in school. |
(2) Nominalised text (fewer verbs):
An apparent increase in errors in written documents produced by school leavers has led to a concern about the teaching of spelling in school. |
Following brief introductory notes, students are asked to turn a series of verbs into nouns (e.g. sustain … sustainability), and then complete a rewritten text about language acquisition using noun forms:
This research examined the way that five hearing babies born to deaf parents acquired language. The babies were not exposed to adults speaking around them at home, but they were exposed to sign language right from birth. The study recorded the babies as they started to communicate, which showed the babies signing with their parents. The researchers analysed the data from the study, and this showed that all five babies developed sign language in similar ways. The fact that these hearing babies produce signs with their deaf parents reveals that it is important for them to communicate together.
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Complete each gap with a noun created from one of the words from the first paragraph.
This research examined the language ______ of five hearing babies born to deaf parents. The babies had ______ to sign language rather than oral language at home, and ______ of their early ______ showed them signing with their parents. The ______ showed that the ______ of sign language was similar in all five babies. The ______ of signs between hearing babies and their deaf parents reveals the ______ of parent-child ______ . |
Given that nominalisation is often used in academic writing to form complex noun phrase subjects, the Week 7 notes then revisit subject-verb agreement from Week 3:
The emergence of new forms of creative writing, and particularly of song compositions that draw on traditional stories, is a refreshing development.
The emergence of new forms of creative writing, and particularly of song compositions that draw on traditional stories, is a refreshing development.
Week 8 covers the use and formation of passive sentences, using examples that relate to the week’s topic of language learning and teaching. Before focusing on grammatical structure (as school grammar lessons tend to prioritise), the notes focus on the different effects created by active and passive sentences:
Compare the two texts below, and see if you can work out why the first sentence is in the active voice in the first text, while it is in the passive voice in the second:
Compare the two texts below, and see if you can work out why the first sentence is in the active voice in the first text, while it is in the passive voice in the second:
USP launched a new programme in Cook Islands Māori in 2017. The university is committed to teaching and researching the languages of the Pacific region, and it has responded to requests from the Cook Islands to start offering this language. (From a news article to be read by the public)
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A new programme in Cook Islands Māori was launched in 2017. We would now like to develop similar programmes that will cater for speakers of Tongan, Niuafoˈou, Rotuman, Vagahau Niue, and a range of Vanuatu languages. (From a proposal submitted by the School of Language, Arts & Media to a USP committee)
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Although the sentences are almost identical, they produce different effects. The first text is written by USP for an outside audience, so USP wants to show the public that it has implemented something positive at the Cook Islands campus! However, the second text is an internal document, so there is no need to mention USP at all. This time, the writer is trying to convince the committee to allow some further new programmes. The focus, this time, is the fact that one new programme has already been implemented, which means that it is logical to introduce some more. The meaning is similar, but can be manipulated to achieve the desired effect!
The notes then cover the use of ‘it’ phrases in the passive voice to refer to general trends concisely (e.g. It has been found that accuracy is achieved more readily when there is an explicit focus on the form of the language), followed by a quiz activity to practise rewriting sentences more concisely. Throughout this week’s ‘effective communication’ resources, the important point is that the choice to use active or passive sentences usually creates an impact on the way our text will be interpreted. School-based grammar lessons frequently focus on transforming sentences from one voice to the other as though they are equivalent but, by looking at sentences in context here, we help to show students that this is not the case.
The notes then cover the use of ‘it’ phrases in the passive voice to refer to general trends concisely (e.g. It has been found that accuracy is achieved more readily when there is an explicit focus on the form of the language), followed by a quiz activity to practise rewriting sentences more concisely. Throughout this week’s ‘effective communication’ resources, the important point is that the choice to use active or passive sentences usually creates an impact on the way our text will be interpreted. School-based grammar lessons frequently focus on transforming sentences from one voice to the other as though they are equivalent but, by looking at sentences in context here, we help to show students that this is not the case.
In Week 9, the ‘effective communication’ component covers relative clauses and, unusually for our approach, we do focus to begin with on the mechanics of this type of clause. This is because a very frequent error in the English of many of our students is the pronominal copy found in sentences like the following (in which the two pronouns in red should be deleted):
*I told you about that man who he speaks eight languages that I’ve never even heard of them.
For many of our students, this is likely due to the different ways that the same information might be expressed in their other languages, and they may not have focused sufficiently on the differences between these structures before. We also focus on the purpose of a relative clause … to provide more information about the noun that comes before them (‘man’ and ‘languages’ in the above example), which is a useful strategy in academic writing when trying to write or decode densely packed noun phrase subjects. The quiz activities combine ‘school-like’ sentence rewriting tasks with further gap fill activities that focus on subject-verb agreement. Once students realise that the relative clauses are there to add extra information to a head noun, they can learn to ignore them when working out subject-verb agreement:
*I told you about that man who he speaks eight languages that I’ve never even heard of them.
For many of our students, this is likely due to the different ways that the same information might be expressed in their other languages, and they may not have focused sufficiently on the differences between these structures before. We also focus on the purpose of a relative clause … to provide more information about the noun that comes before them (‘man’ and ‘languages’ in the above example), which is a useful strategy in academic writing when trying to write or decode densely packed noun phrase subjects. The quiz activities combine ‘school-like’ sentence rewriting tasks with further gap fill activities that focus on subject-verb agreement. Once students realise that the relative clauses are there to add extra information to a head noun, they can learn to ignore them when working out subject-verb agreement:
- The man lives in a remote area.
- The man [who is thought to be the last speaker of that language] lives in a remote area.
Week 10 moves to the type of language used in the more depersonalised style of writing expected in academia. The first notes and activity ask students to focus on the bold phrases in the following paragraph, deciding which sentences express the essay writer’s point of view, and which express other people’s points of view. When sentences express other people’s points of view, they have to try to work out whether the essay writer agrees or disagrees.
It is evident that English proficiency is weak amongst school leavers. It is frequently reported in the media that the problem lies with the teachers, or with the way that they are being trained. However, it is likely that the problem runs deeper. It has been argued that the syllabus used to teach English in the Pacific is not actually tailored to contexts in which English is a second language (McPherson, 2000; Willans, 2019), and it appears that this has been the case for quite some time (Elley & Thompson, 1978; Fitzcharles, 1984; Goetzfridt, 1985).
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The idea is to socialise students into ways of incorporating other writers’ ideas into their own texts, making it clear how they support or go against their own views without saying so explicitly (which follows the ideas discussed in the Week 6 Working with Texts strand). Following some notes about the structure of ‘It’ phrases, students then have to correct one word in each of the following sentences:
Finally, students are shown how to use evidence to keep an impersonal tone, rather than putting their own personal views across. The following pair of texts is used to illustrate the point:
- It is often believe that Chinese is a difficult language to learn.
- It is likely to English speakers will find Chinese harder than German.
- There seems that more similar languages are easier to learn.
- It is said that English speakers finding the pronunciation of Chinese very hard.
- It has also being shown that they struggle to learn the writing system.
Finally, students are shown how to use evidence to keep an impersonal tone, rather than putting their own personal views across. The following pair of texts is used to illustrate the point:
Academic text
The disparity between the most commonly taught foreign languages in Australia and the languages most associated with economic advantage indicates that students are not necessarily learning the languages that offer economic benefits. The top three languages studied are Japanese, French and German (Department for Education, 2016). However, the top emerging economies are now considered to be India, Indonesia and Malaysia (Bremmer, 2015), which would suggest a rise in popularity of national languages of these countries. The figures show that students are still more likely to study languages that were promoted as important in the 1970s or 1980s. Midgley (2017, p.27) therefore argues that language education in Australia is “having trouble keeping up”. The question that remains is whether students are continuing to study languages like French because they believe that they are linked to economic success, or whether there are other factors that influence their choices. |
Non-academic text
I believe that students in Australia are not learning foreign languages for economic reasons, because the most commonly taught languages are not the same as the languages that are most associated with economic advantage. Most students prefer to study Japanese, French and German. However, the top emerging economies are now India, Indonesia and Malaysia, so why do students not want to study their national languages? Instead, they still prefer to study languages that were promoted as important in the 1970s or 1980s. Some people assume that language education in Australia is not up-to-date. In my opinion, it might be that students continue to study languages like French because they believe that they are linked to economic success, but I think they may also be influenced by other factors. |
Both texts make the same point, using exactly the same information. However, the non-academic text starts every sentence with a personal view, making the ideas seem like personal opinion rather than evidence. The academic text puts forward the same position using a more impersonal tone. A series of notes and a final quiz activity help students to practise writing more impersonally.
In Week 11 the ‘effective communication’ component looks at the language of argument, in preparation for a written essay in which students will have to weigh up evidence and put forward a position within a linguistic debate. It begins by defining an academic argument:
In academic writing, an argument does not mean a disagreement. It simply means a claim or position that is put forward and then supported with justifications or evidence. This argument will emerge from your research, once you have done enough reading around the topic and you have looked at what other researchers have said or found.
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The notes and activities then focus on three aspects of written arguments:
1. Using language that will convince the reader:
2. Using in-text citations to show your position without saying directly what you think:
1. Using language that will convince the reader:
- Justifying a position with clauses of reason (using phrases such as ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘due to’)
- Showing the conditions under which an argument is true (using conditional ‘if’ clauses)
- Drawing conclusions (using phrases such as ‘so’, ‘therefore’, ‘given that’ and ‘it then follows that’)
2. Using in-text citations to show your position without saying directly what you think:
Statement of fact:
Neutral citation: Citation that I agree with: Citation that I may go on to disagree with: |
Many policies in the region are de facto rather than de jure (Mangubhai, 2002).
Mangubhai (2002) shows that many policies tend to be de facto. As Mangubhai (2002, p.490) argues, many policies have “arisen out of historical circumstances”. Mangubhai (2002, p.490) argues that many policies have “arisen out of historical circumstances”. However, this suggests that Pacific governments have had no agency to make their own decisions over the past few decades. |
3. Using concession clauses to acknowledge and dismiss counter-arguments, using structures such as:
- While this may have been true of earlier dictionaries, it is no longer possible to …
- Although this is a popular belief, there is actually no evidence to support the fact that …
- Despite sounding reasonable, it is actually easy to discredit this view.
- Even if this is the case, it does not explain why …
- While this does sometimes happen, it is clear that a more common experience is …
Throughout this week’s component, the focus is primarily on the purpose of using these types of phrases and clauses (rather than memorising lists of ‘linking words’ that can be used for multiple purposes). The quiz activities also consolidate the mechanical aspects of the grammar: when to use ‘that’, verb forms after ‘despite’ and ‘while’, and so on.
This topic leads directly into Week 12, which examines effective ways to link ideas together. There is a certain amount of ‘unlearning’ required in this topic, since students seem to have acquired notions over the years that every paragraph of an essay must start with a ‘linking word’, and that linking is simply a matter of picking any word at random from the list. With this in mind, the first sets of notes and activities focus on the different types of phrase that can be used to show the order of ideas, add further ideas that make a similar point, and make a new point that contrasts with the previous one.
However, students are then encouraged to use rather fewer of these familiar ‘linking words’ (firstly, moreover, furthermore, consequently …) and use grammatical reference to link ideas more subtly. Using paragraphs from the weekly reading (Bamgbose, 2003), such as the following, students are required to identify what each bold phrase refers back to:
However, students are then encouraged to use rather fewer of these familiar ‘linking words’ (firstly, moreover, furthermore, consequently …) and use grammatical reference to link ideas more subtly. Using paragraphs from the weekly reading (Bamgbose, 2003), such as the following, students are required to identify what each bold phrase refers back to:
The dominance of English is an inescapable fact that language policy and planning must come to terms with. In so doing, this dominance must be so managed as to produce maximally favorable outcomes. In Outer Circle countries, in particular, a proper definition of language roles should minimize the incidence of exclusion. As researchers in world Englishes, we cannot consider our job done if we turn a blind eye to the problems of educational failure or unfavorable language policy outcomes. We have a clear duty to contribute to language policy discourse in so far as it relates to the role of English. Such contribution must be informed by an understanding that, although the English language is one major, global and powerful resource in the world today, its role can only be complementary to that of other languages in a multilingual and multicultural context.
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Through these activities, students are encouraged to make greater use of pronouns and determiners to refer back to ideas that have already been mentioned, thus achieving cohesion in their texts more smoothly. The component ends with a short focus on other strategies that can be used to achieve the same effect: relative clauses, ellipsis, repetition, substitution, and a few formulaic phrases such as ‘the former … the latter’, and ‘such’.
In the final teaching week, Week 13, attention turns to effective ways to arrange the ideas of a text in a logical order. The priority is on thinking about the reader (or audience), constantly asking questions such as:
- Do they know what this thing/place/organisation/person/event is?
- Do I need to demonstrate my knowledge about it?
- Have I mentioned it already in my text?
Draft
Since the 1926 Review of Education, at which time the policy was put in place, it has not changed. In Fiji, there is officially a transitional policy of medium of instruction. In 1926, it was decided that the vernacular would be used as the medium of instruction before a transition to English in Grade 4. This is still official policy today, even though many schools teach in English only. |
Revised
Fiji’s medium of instruction policy was put in place after the 1926 Review of Education. It is officially a transitional policy of medium of instruction, through which the vernacular is supposed to be used as the medium of instruction before a transition to English in Grade 4. Official policy has not changed since 1926, but many schools teach in English only. |
Quiz activities then give students the chance to practise rearranging the sentences within another series of paragraphs, before completing a final gap fill text that consolidates students’ knowledge of more subtle ways to ensure cohesion in a text. Once students have understood the key point about organising their ideas in the most helpful way for the reader, they should now hopefully see that there is less need for so many ‘obvious’ linking phrases that can actually interrupt the flow of ideas.
Texts cited:
Bamgbose, A. (2003). A recurring decimal: English in language policy and planning. World Englishes, 22(4), 419-431.
François, A., Franjieh, M., Lacrampe, S., & Schnell, S. (2015). The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu. In A. François, S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, & S. Schnell (Eds.), The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity (pp. 1-22). Canberra: Open Access Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, The Australian National University.
Heugh, K. (2002). The case against bilingual and multilingual education in South Africa: Laying bare the myths. Perspectives in Education, 20 (1), 171-196.
Ross, M. (2003). Diagnosing prehistoric language contact. In R. Hickey (Ed.), Motives for Language Change (pp. 174-198). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sallabank, J. (2013). The sociolinguistic situation in the Cook Islands. Department of Linguistics, SOAS, London. Retrieved from http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21246/
Bamgbose, A. (2003). A recurring decimal: English in language policy and planning. World Englishes, 22(4), 419-431.
François, A., Franjieh, M., Lacrampe, S., & Schnell, S. (2015). The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu. In A. François, S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, & S. Schnell (Eds.), The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity (pp. 1-22). Canberra: Open Access Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, The Australian National University.
Heugh, K. (2002). The case against bilingual and multilingual education in South Africa: Laying bare the myths. Perspectives in Education, 20 (1), 171-196.
Ross, M. (2003). Diagnosing prehistoric language contact. In R. Hickey (Ed.), Motives for Language Change (pp. 174-198). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sallabank, J. (2013). The sociolinguistic situation in the Cook Islands. Department of Linguistics, SOAS, London. Retrieved from http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21246/